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ISTQB CT-AI Exam Syllabus Topics:
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NEW QUESTION # 33
Pairwise testing can be used in the context of self-driving cars for controlling an explosion in the number of combinations of parameters.
Which ONE of the following options is LEAST likely to be a reason for this incredible growth of parameters?
SELECT ONE OPTION
- A. ML model metrics to evaluate the functional performance
- B. Different Road Types
- C. Different weather conditions
- D. Different features like ADAS, Lane Change Assistance etc.
Answer: A
Explanation:
Pairwise testing is used to handle the large number of combinations of parameters that can arise in complex systems like self-driving cars. The question asks which of the given options isleast likelyto be a reason for the explosion in the number of parameters.
* Different Road Types (A): Self-driving cars must operate on various road types, such as highways, city streets, rural roads, etc. Each road type can have different characteristics, requiring the car's system to adapt and handle different scenarios. Thus, this is a significant factor contributing to the growth of parameters.
* Different Weather Conditions (B): Weather conditions such as rain, snow, fog, and bright sunlight significantly affect the performance of self-driving cars. The car's sensors and algorithms must adapt to these varying conditions, which adds to the number of parameters that need to be considered.
* ML Model Metrics to Evaluate Functional Performance (C): While evaluating machine learning (ML) model performance is crucial, it does not directly contribute to the explosion of parameter combinations in the same way that road types, weather conditions, and car features do. Metrics are used to measure and assess performance but are not themselves variable conditions that the system must handle.
* Different Features like ADAS, Lane Change Assistance, etc. (D): Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and other features add complexity to self-driving cars. Each feature can have multiple settings and operational modes, contributing to the overall number of parameters.
Hence, theleast likelyreason for the incredible growth in the number of parameters isC. ML model metrics to evaluate the functional performance.
References:
* ISTQB CT-AI Syllabus Section 9.2 on Pairwise Testing discusses the application of this technique to manage the combinations of different variables in AI-based systems, including those used in self- driving cars.
* Sample Exam Questions document, Question #29 provides context for the explosion in parameter combinations in self-driving cars and highlights the use of pairwise testing as a method to manage this complexity.
NEW QUESTION # 34
Which of the following is a problem with AI-generated test cases that are generated from the requirements?
- A. They are usually missing the expected results, so verification is difficult or must resort to only detecting significant failures
- B. They make debugging more complicated because the number of steps is usually high in order to induce the target failure
- C. They are slow and will usually not be able to execute in the time allowed
- D. They are defect-prone because they are unable to detect nuances in the requirements
Answer: A
Explanation:
The syllabus mentions a drawback of AI-generated test cases:
"AI-based test generation tools can generate test cases... However, unless a test model that defines required behaviors is used as the basis of the tests, this form of test generation generally suffers from a test oracle problem because the AI-based tool does not know what the expected results should be." (Reference: ISTQB CT-AI Syllabus v1.0, Section 11.3, page 78 of 99)
NEW QUESTION # 35
A system was developed for screening the X-rays of patients for potential malignancy detection (skin cancer). A workflow system has been developed to screen multiple cancers by using several individually trained ML models chained together in the workflow.
Testing the pipeline could involve multiple kind of tests (I - III):
I . Pairwise testing of combinations
II . Testing each individual model for accuracy
III . A/B testing of different sequences of models
Which ONE of the following options contains the kinds of tests that would be MOST APPROPRIATE to include in the strategy for optimal detection?
SELECT ONE OPTION
- A. Only III
- B. I and III
- C. Only II
- D. I and II
Answer: D
Explanation:
The question asks which combination of tests would be most appropriate to include in the strategy for optimal detection in a workflow system using multiple ML models.
Pairwise testing of combinations (I): This method is useful for testing interactions between different components in the workflow to ensure they work well together, identifying potential issues in the integration.
Testing each individual model for accuracy (II): Ensuring that each model in the workflow performs accurately on its own is crucial before integrating them into a combined workflow.
A/B testing of different sequences of models (III): This involves comparing different sequences to determine which configuration yields the best results. While useful, it might not be as fundamental as pairwise and individual accuracy testing in the initial stages.
Reference:
ISTQB CT-AI Syllabus Section 9.2 on Pairwise Testing and Section 9.3 on Testing ML Models emphasize the importance of testing interactions and individual model accuracy in complex ML workflows.
NEW QUESTION # 36
A software component uses machine learning to recognize the digits from a scan of handwritten numbers. In the scenario above, which type of Machine Learning (ML) is this an example of?
SELECT ONE OPTION
- A. Regression
- B. Clustering
- C. Reinforcement learning
- D. Classification
Answer: D
Explanation:
Recognizing digits from a scan of handwritten numbers using machine learning is an example of classification. Here's a breakdown:
Classification: This type of machine learning involves categorizing input data into predefined classes. In this scenario, the input data (handwritten digits) are classified into one of the 10 digit classes (0-9).
Why Not Other Options:
Reinforcement Learning: This involves learning by interacting with an environment to achieve a goal, which does not fit the problem of recognizing digits.
Regression: This is used for predicting continuous values, not discrete categories like digit recognition.
Clustering: This involves grouping similar data points together without predefined classes, which is not the case here.
NEW QUESTION # 37
Which statement about testing levels for AI-based systems is correct?
Choose ONE option (1 out of 4)
- A. If AI is offered as a service, system testing includes API tests of the service
- B. Input data testing checks whether the inputs from the data pipeline are received by the model correctly and exchanged with all system components
- C. ML model testing ensures that the relevant ML functional performance criteria are met
- D. Acceptance testing checks non-functional requirements such as explainability
Answer: C
Explanation:
Section4.3 - Test Levels for AI Systemsclearly defines ML model testing as the level at which testers evaluate whether an ML model fulfills itsfunctional performance criteria, including accuracy, precision, recall, F1, robustness, stability, and fairness. Therefore, Option C is the correct and syllabus-aligned statement.
Option A is incorrect because input data testing focuses onvalidity and correctness of data entering the model, not interactions with all system components. Option B is incorrect: acceptance testing in the syllabus focuses primarily onbusiness and stakeholder requirements, not specifically explainability. Explainability testing may occur at multiple levels depending on context. Option D is also incorrect because API testing belongs tointegration testing, not system testing, even when AI is consumed as a service.
Thus,Option Cis the only statement that precisely matches syllabus definitions.
NEW QUESTION # 38
Which ONE of the following tests is LEAST likely to be performed during the ML model testing phase?
SELECT ONE OPTION
- A. Testing the accuracy of the classification model.
- B. Testing the API of the service powered by the ML model.
- C. Testing the speed of the training of the model.
- D. Testing the speed of the prediction by the model.
Answer: C
Explanation:
The question asks which test is least likely to be performed during the ML model testing phase. Let's consider each option:
* Testing the accuracy of the classification model (A): Accuracy testing is a fundamental part of the ML model testing phase. It ensures that the model correctly classifies the data as intended and meets the required performance metrics.
* Testing the API of the service powered by the ML model (B): Testing the API is crucial, especially if the ML model is deployed as part of a service. This ensures that the service integrates well with other systems and that the API performs as expected.
* Testing the speed of the training of the model (C): This is least likely to be part of the ML model testing phase. The speed of training is more relevant during the development phase when optimizing and tuning the model. During testing, the focus is more on the model's performance and behavior rather than how quickly it was trained.
* Testing the speed of the prediction by the model (D): Testing the speed of prediction is important to ensure that the model meets performance requirements in a production environment, especially for real- time applications.
:
ISTQB CT-AI Syllabus Section 3.2 on ML Workflow and Section 5 on ML Functional Performance Metrics discuss the focus of testing during the model testing phase, which includes accuracy and prediction speed but not the training speed.
NEW QUESTION # 39
Which challenge to testing self-learning systems puts you at risk of a data attack?
Choose ONE option (1 out of 4)
- A. Complex test environment
- B. Unexpected changes
- C. Insufficient testing time
- D. Inadequate specification of the operating environment
Answer: B
Explanation:
The ISTQB CT-AI syllabus describes thatself-learning systems continuously adjust their behaviorduring operation as new data arrives. Section4.1 - Challenges of Testing AI-Based Systemshighlights that such systems are vulnerable todata attacks, particularly through adversarial inputs, poisoning, or malicious drift.
The risk arises because unexpected changes in the input distribution may alter the learned model in harmful ways. OptionD - Unexpected changescorresponds directly to this syllabus-defined risk.
Option A refers to system specification issues but does not relate to data attacks. Option B discusses environment complexity, which makes testing difficult but is not tied to adversarial threats. Option C (insufficient testing time) affects quality but does not specifically increase vulnerability to malicious data manipulation.
Unexpected changes-including data drift, poisoned samples, or maliciously constructed training data-pose the greatest risk. When a self-learning system adapts to altered data patterns, it may unknowingly learn incorrect associations, causing model degradation or manipulation. Therefore,Option Dcorrectly identifies the challenge that increases exposure to data attacks.
NEW QUESTION # 40
Which of the following is an example of an input change where it would be expected that the AI system should be able to adapt?
- A. It has been trained to analyze customer buying trend data and is given information on supplier cost data.
- B. It has been trained to recognize cats and is given an image of a dog.
- C. It has been trained to recognize human faces at a particular resolution and it is given a human face image captured with a higher resolution.
- D. It has been trained to analyze mathematical models and is given a set of landscape pictures to classify.
Answer: C
Explanation:
AI systems, particularly machine learning models, need to exhibit adaptability and flexibility to handle slight variations in input data without requiring retraining. The ISTQB CT-AI syllabus outlines adaptability as a crucial feature of AI systems, especially when the system is exposed to variations in its operational environment.
* Option A:"It has been trained to recognize cats and is given an image of a dog."
* This scenario introduces an entirely new class (dogs), which is outside the AI system's expected scope. If the AI was only trained to recognize cats, it would not be expected to recognize dogs correctly without retraining. This does not demonstrate adaptability as expected from an AI system.
* Option B:"It has been trained to recognize human faces at a particular resolution and it is given a human face image captured with a higher resolution."
* This is an example of an AI system encountering a variation of its training data rather than entirely new data. Most AI-based image processing models can adapt to different resolutions by applying downsampling or other pre-processing techniques. Since the data remains within the domain of human faces, the model should be able to process the higher-resolution image without significant issues.
* Option C:"It has been trained to analyze mathematical models and is given a set of landscape pictures to classify."
* This represents a complete shift in the data type from structured numerical data to unstructured image data. The AI system is unlikely to adapt effectively, as it has not been trained on image classification tasks.
* Option D:"It has been trained to analyze customer buying trend data and is given information on supplier cost data."
* This introduces a significant domain shift. Customer buying trends focus on consumer behavior, while supplier cost data relates to pricing structures and logistics. The AI system would likely require retraining to process the new data meaningfully.
* Adaptability Requirements:The syllabus discusses that AI-based systems must be able to adapt to changes in their operational environment and constraints, including minor variations in input quality (such as resolution changes).
* Autonomous Learning & Evolution:AI systems are expected to improve and handle evolving inputs based on prior experience.
* Challenges in Testing Self-Learning Systems:AI systems should be tested to ensure they function correctly when encountering new but related data, such as different resolutions of the same object.
Analysis of the Answer Options:ISTQB CT-AI Syllabus References:Thus,option Bis the best choice as it aligns with the adaptability characteristics expected from AI-based systems.
NEW QUESTION # 41
You have been developing test automation for an e-commerce system. One of the problems you are seeing is that object recognition in the GUI is having frequent failures. You have determined this is because the developers are changing the identifiers when they make code updates.
How could AI help make the automation more reliable?
- A. It could dynamically name the objects, altering the source code, so the object names will match the object names used in the automation.
- B. It could modify the automation code to ignore unrecognizable objects to avoid failures.
- C. It could generate a model that will anticipate developer changes and pre-alter the test automation code accordingly.
- D. It could identify the objects multiple ways and then determine the most commonly used and stable identification for each object.
Answer: D
NEW QUESTION # 42
Arihant Meditation is a startup using Al to aid people in deeper and better meditation based on analysis of various factors such as time and duration of the meditation, pulse and blood pressure, EEG patters etc. among others. Their model accuracy and other functional performance parameters have not yet reached their desired level.
Which ONE of the following factors is NOT a factor affecting the ML functional performance?
SELECT ONE OPTION
- A. The data pipeline
- B. Biased data
- C. The quality of the labeling
- D. The number of classes
Answer: D
Explanation:
* Factors Affecting ML Functional Performance: The data pipeline, quality of the labeling, and biased data are all factors that significantly affect the performance of machine learning models. The number of classes, while relevant for the model structure, is not a direct factor affecting the performance metrics such as accuracy or bias.
* Reference: ISTQB_CT-AI_Syllabus_v1.0, Sections on Data Quality and its Effect on the ML Model and ML Functional Performance Metrics.
NEW QUESTION # 43
Which statement regarding the use of training, validation, and test data sets is correct?
Choose ONE option (1 out of 4)
- A. If limited data is available, it may be better to work without a separate test data set.
- B. Optimally, the data should be distributed equally between the training, validation, and test data sets.
- C. The data in the test data set must be equivalent to the data in the training data sets and to the data in the validation data sets.
- D. If only limited data is available, validation and test data sets can be combined in multiple ways during training.
Answer: C
Explanation:
The ISTQB CT-AI syllabus (Section3.2 - Model Evaluation) specifies the correct usage oftraining, validation, andtestdatasets. It emphasizes that thetest dataset must be representative of the real operational dataand must beequivalent in distribution to the training and validation sets, ensuring a fair and unbiased evaluation. Option D precisely matches this requirement.
Option A contradicts the syllabus because validation and test sets servedifferent purposes: validation is for tuning, test is for final evaluation. Combining them undermines the reliability of results. Option B is incorrect because even with limited data, the syllabus recommends maintaining a test set or using techniques such as cross-validationrather than eliminating testing. Option C is wrong because equal distribution (33/33/33) isnot recommended; typically, the training set is much larger (e.g., 70-80%).
Thus, OptionDis the only statement aligned with the syllabus' guidance.
NEW QUESTION # 44
Which statement regarding pairwise testing in an AI-based automotive lane-keeping assist system is correct?
Choose ONE option (1 out of 4)
- A. Pairwise testing is usually insufficient because most defects arise only from interactions of many parameters.
- B. Pairwise testing reduces the test suite so much that it is typically feasible within the available time.
- C. Pairwise testing can reduce testing efforts otherwise very high due to the large number of parameters.
- D. Pairwise testing only uses parameters directly influenced by the driver, otherwise the number of test cases becomes too large.
Answer: C
Explanation:
The ISTQB CT-AI syllabus (Section4.3 - Test Design for AI-Based Systems) highlights pairwise testing as an effectivetest-case reduction techniquefor systems with many input parameters. Lane-keeping assist systems typically include environmental, sensor, and vehicle-dynamic parameters, making exhaustive testing infeasible. Pairwise testing significantly reduces the number of test cases while still capturingall 2-way interactions, which are responsible for a large proportion of software defects.
OptionBaligns with this syllabus description: pairwise testing reduces otherwise extremely large parameter combinations, making test effort manageable.
Option A overstates feasibility guarantees; the syllabus never claims pairwise testing always makes testing
"typically feasible." Option C is unsupported and incorrect because pairwise testing doesnotrestrict parameters to driver-controlled ones. Option D is incorrect because, although some defects arise from higher- order interactions, pairwise testing captures many relevant defects and is widely recognized as a pragmatic compromise.
Thus,Option Bis the correct statement.
NEW QUESTION # 45
Which of the following problems would best be solved using the supervised learning category of regression?
- A. Determining if an animal is a pig or a cow based on image recognition
- B. Determining the optimal age for a chicken's egg-laying production using input data of the chicken's age and average daily egg production for one million chickens
- C. Recognizing a knife in carry-on luggage at a security checkpoint in an airport scanner
- D. Predicting shopper purchasing behavior based on the category of shopper and the positioning of promotional displays within a store
Answer: B
Explanation:
The syllabus states:
"Supervised learning... divides problems into two categories: classification and regression. Regression is used when the problem requires the ML model to predict a numeric output, for example predicting the age of a person based on their habits." (Reference: ISTQB CT-AI Syllabus v1.0, Section 3.1.1, Page 26 of 99)
NEW QUESTION # 46
The activation value output for a neuron in a neural network is obtained by applying computation to the neuron.
Which ONE of the following options BEST describes the inputs used to compute the activation value?
SELECT ONE OPTION
- A. Individual bias at the neuron level, and weights assigned to the connections between the neurons.
- B. Activation values of neurons in the previous layer, and weights assigned to the connections between the neurons.
- C. Individual bias at the neuron level, and activation values of neurons in the previous layer.
- D. Individual bias at the neuron level, activation values of neurons in the previous layer, and weights assigned to the connections between the neurons.
Answer: D
Explanation:
In a neural network, the activation value of a neuron is determined by a combination of inputs from the previous layer, the weights of the connections, and the bias at the neuron level. Here's a detailed breakdown:
* Inputs for Activation Value:
* Activation Values of Neurons in the Previous Layer:These are the outputs from neurons in the preceding layer that serve as inputs to the current neuron.
* Weights Assigned to the Connections:Each connection between neurons has an associated weight, which determines the strength and direction of the input signal.
* Individual Bias at the Neuron Level:Each neuron has a bias value that adjusts the input sum, allowing the activation function to be shifted.
* Calculation:
* The activation value is computed by summing the weighted inputs from the previous layer and adding the bias.
* Formula: z=#(wi#ai)+bz = \sum (w_i \cdot a_i) + bz=#(wi#ai)+b, where wiw_iwi are the weights, aia_iai are the activation values from the previous layer, and bbb is the bias.
* The activation function (e.g., sigmoid, ReLU) is then applied to this sum to get the final activation value.
* Why Option A is Correct:
* Option A correctly identifies all components involved in computing the activation value: the individual bias, the activation values of the previous layer, and the weights of the connections.
* Eliminating Other Options:
* B. Activation values of neurons in the previous layer, and weights assigned to the connections between the neurons: This option misses the bias, which is crucial.
* C. Individual bias at the neuron level, and weights assigned to the connections between the neurons: This option misses the activation values from the previous layer.
* D. Individual bias at the neuron level, and activation values of neurons in the previous layer
This option misses the weights, which are essential.
References:
ISTQB CT-AI Syllabus, Section 6.1, Neural Networks, discusses the components and functioning of neurons in a neural network.
"Neural Network Activation Functions" (ISTQB CT-AI Syllabus, Section 6.1.1).
NEW QUESTION # 47
Upon testing a model used to detect rotten tomatoes, the following data was observed by the test engineer, based on certain number of tomato images.
For this confusion matrix which combinations of values of accuracy, recall, and specificity respectively is CORRECT?
SELECT ONE OPTION
- A. 0.84.1,0.9
- B. 1,0.87,0.84
- C. 1,0.9, 0.8
- D. 0.87.0.9. 0.84
Answer: D
Explanation:
To calculate the accuracy, recall, and specificity from the confusion matrix provided, we use the following formulas:
* Confusion Matrix:
* Actually Rotten: 45 (True Positive), 8 (False Positive)
* Actually Fresh: 5 (False Negative), 42 (True Negative)
* Accuracy:
* Accuracy is the proportion of true results (both true positives and true negatives) in the total population.
* Formula: Accuracy=TP+TNTP+TN+FP+FN\text{Accuracy} = \frac{TP + TN}{TP + TN + FP + FN}Accuracy=TP+TN+FP+FNTP+TN
* Calculation: Accuracy=45+4245+42+8+5=87100=0.87\text{Accuracy} = \frac{45 + 42}{45 + 42
+ 8 + 5} = \frac{87}{100} = 0.87Accuracy=45+42+8+545+42=10087=0.87
* Recall (Sensitivity):
* Recall is the proportion of true positive results in the total actual positives.
* Formula: Recall=TPTP+FN\text{Recall} = \frac{TP}{TP + FN}Recall=TP+FNTP
* Calculation: Recall=4545+5=4550=0.9\text{Recall} = \frac{45}{45 + 5} = \frac{45}{50} = 0.9 Recall=45+545=5045=0.9
* Specificity:
* Specificity is the proportion of true negative results in the total actual negatives.
* Formula: Specificity=TNTN+FP\text{Specificity} = \frac{TN}{TN + FP}Specificity=TN+FPTN
* Calculation: Specificity=4242+8=4250=0.84\text{Specificity} = \frac{42}{42 + 8} = \frac{42}
{50} = 0.84Specificity=42+842=5042=0.84
Therefore, the correct combinations of accuracy, recall, and specificity are 0.87, 0.9, and 0.84 respectively.
References:
ISTQB CT-AI Syllabus, Section 5.1, Confusion Matrix, provides detailed formulas and explanations for calculating various metrics including accuracy, recall, and specificity.
"ML Functional Performance Metrics" (ISTQB CT-AI Syllabus, Section 5).
NEW QUESTION # 48
"Splendid Healthcare" has started developing a cancer detection system based on ML. The type of cancer they plan on detecting has 2% prevalence rate in the population of a particular geography. It is required that the model performs well for both normal and cancer patients.
Which ONE of the following combinations requires MAXIMIZATION?
SELECT ONE OPTION
- A. Maximize recall and precision
- B. Maximize accuracy and recall
- C. Maximize specificity number of classes
- D. Maximize precision and accuracy
Answer: A
Explanation:
Prevalence Rate and Model Performance:
The cancer detection system being developed by "Splendid Healthcare" needs to account for the fact that the type of cancer has a 2% prevalence rate in the population. This indicates that the dataset is highly imbalanced with far fewer positive (cancer) cases compared to negative (normal) cases.
Importance of Recall:
Recall, also known as sensitivity or true positive rate, measures the proportion of actual positive cases that are correctly identified by the model. In medical diagnosis, especially cancer detection, recall is critical because missing a positive case (false negative) could have severe consequences for the patient. Therefore, maximizing recall ensures that most, if not all, cancer cases are detected.
Importance of Precision:
Precision measures the proportion of predicted positive cases that are actually positive. High precision reduces the number of false positives, meaning fewer people will be incorrectly diagnosed with cancer. This is also important to avoid unnecessary anxiety and further invasive testing for those who do not have the disease.
Balancing Recall and Precision:
In scenarios where both false negatives and false positives have significant consequences, it is crucial to balance recall and precision. This balance ensures that the model is not only good at detecting positive cases but also accurate in its predictions, reducing both types of errors.
Accuracy and Specificity:
While accuracy (the proportion of total correct predictions) is important, it can be misleading in imbalanced datasets. In this case, high accuracy could simply result from the model predicting the majority class (normal) correctly. Specificity (true negative rate) is also important, but for a cancer detection system, recall and precision take precedence to ensure positive cases are correctly and accurately identified.
Conclusion:
Therefore, for a cancer detection system with a low prevalence rate, maximizing both recall and precision is crucial to ensure effective and accurate detection of cancer cases.
NEW QUESTION # 49
Which ONE of the following tests is MOST likely to describe a useful test to help detect different kinds of biases in ML pipeline?
SELECT ONE OPTION
- A. Testing the distribution shift in the training data for inappropriate bias.
- B. Test the model during model evaluation for data bias.
- C. Testing the data pipeline for any sources for algorithmic bias.
- D. Check the input test data for potential sample bias.
Answer: B
Explanation:
Detecting biases in the ML pipeline involves various tests to ensure fairness and accuracy throughout the ML process.
* Testing the distribution shift in the training data for inappropriate bias (A): This involves checking if there is any shift in the data distribution that could lead to bias in the model. It is an important test but not the most direct method for detecting biases.
* Test the model during model evaluation for data bias (B): This is a critical stage where the model is evaluated to detect any biases in the data it was trained on. It directly addresses potential data biases in the model.
* Testing the data pipeline for any sources for algorithmic bias (C): This test is crucial as it helps identify biases that may originate from the data processing and transformation stages within the pipeline. Detecting sources of algorithmic bias ensures that the model does not inherit biases from these processes.
* Check the input test data for potential sample bias (D): While this is an important step, it focuses more on the input data and less on the overall data pipeline.
Hence, the most likely useful test to help detect different kinds of biases in the ML pipeline isB. Test the model during model evaluation for data bias.
:
ISTQB CT-AI Syllabus Section 8.3 on Testing for Algorithmic, Sample, and Inappropriate Bias discusses various tests that can be performed to detect biases at different stages of the ML pipeline.
Sample Exam Questions document, Question #32 highlights the importance of evaluating the model for biases.
NEW QUESTION # 50
Which of the following is a dataset issue that can be resolved using pre-processing?
- A. Insufficient data
- B. Wanted outliers
- C. Invalid data
- D. Numbers stored as strings
Answer: D
Explanation:
Pre-processing is an essential step in data preparation that ensures data is clean, formatted correctly, and structured for effective machine learning (ML) model training. One common issue that can be resolved during pre-processing isnumbers stored as strings.
Explanation of Answer Choices:
* Option A: Insufficient data
* Incorrect. Pre-processing cannot resolve insufficient data. If data is lacking, techniques like data augmentation or external data collection are needed.
* Option B: Invalid data
* Incorrect. While pre-processing can identify and handle some forms of invalid data (e.g., missing values, duplicate entries), it does not resolve all invalid data issues. Some cases may require domain expertise to determine validity.
* Option C: Wanted outliers
* Incorrect. Pre-processing usually focuses on handling unwanted outliers. Wanted outliers may need to be preserved, which is more of a data selection decision rather than pre-processing.
* Option D: Numbers stored as strings
* Correct. One of the key functions of data pre-processing isdata transformation, which includes converting incorrectly formatted data types, such as numbers stored as strings, into their correct numerical format.
ISTQB CT-AI Syllabus References:
* Data Pre-Processing Steps:"Transformation: The format of the given data is changed (e.g., breaking an address held as a string into its constituent parts, dropping a field holding a random identifier, converting categorical data into numerical data, changing image formats)".
NEW QUESTION # 51
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